The Technical Marvel of CRISPR-Cas9: A Bacterial Defense Repurposed The core of the CRISPR-Cas9 system is derived from a naturally occurring immune mechanism in bacteria. When a virus, known as a bacteriophage, infects a bacterium, the bacterium captures snippets of the virus’s genetic material and incorporates them into its own genome in specialized regions called …
What is Chromatography? At its core, chromatography is a laboratory technique for separating a mixture into its individual components. The name itself provides a clue: “chroma” meaning color and “graphein” meaning to write. The technique was first developed by the Russian botanist Mikhail Tsvet in 1900 to separate plant pigments like chlorophyll (which are green) …
The Birth of a Myth: 2013 and the Coining of a Term The term “unicorn” entered the venture capital lexicon not through a press release or a marketing campaign, but from a blog post. In 2013, venture capitalist Aileen Lee published “Welcome To The Unicorn Club,” an analysis of U.S. software startups founded since 2003 …
The Core Setup: A Deceptively Simple Apparatus The apparatus for the double-slit experiment is, in principle, straightforward. It requires only a few key components: a source that emits particles (such as electrons, photons, or even molecules), a barrier with two closely spaced, parallel slits, and a detecting screen placed behind the barrier to record where …
For decades, the central dogma of molecular biology cast RNA in a straightforward, supporting role. DNA was the master blueprint, a stable repository of genetic information. Proteins were the versatile workforce, executing nearly every cellular function. RNA, it seemed, was merely the messenger—the transient intermediary that faithfully carried genetic instructions from the nucleus to the …
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Photon Energy Molecular spectroscopy is fundamentally the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum spans a vast range of energies, from low-energy radio waves to high-energy gamma rays. The specific region of this spectrum used determines the type of molecular information obtained. The energy of a …
The Problem with Classical Physics At the dawn of the 20th century, physics was in crisis. The elegant laws of classical mechanics and electromagnetism, so successful at predicting the orbits of planets and the behavior of electric motors, completely failed when applied to the tiny world of the atom. The prevailing “plum pudding” model, proposed …
The Architectural Marvel of the Double Helix The discovery of the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 stands as a monumental achievement in human history, a moment when the fundamental blueprint for life was finally brought into sharp focus. This elegant structure, resembling a spiraling staircase, did more than just win James Watson and …
The Lunar Gateway: A Stepping Stone to Deep Space The Moon is no longer the ultimate destination; it is a proving ground. At the heart of this new paradigm is the Lunar Gateway, an international collaboration led by NASA. This small space station will orbit the Moon, serving as a multi-purpose outpost for science, habitation, …
The Fundamental Principles of Electrolysis Electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses direct electric current (DC) to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. It is the fundamental mechanism behind numerous industrial processes, from metal refining to the production of essential chemicals. At its core, electrolysis involves the movement of ions and the transfer of electrons at …